THE GREAT WHITE FLEET
Britain’s decision not to maintain a presence in the Pacific, as well as the sad state of Russia’s Navy following the Russo-Japanese war created a power vacuum in the area. In addition, American businessmen were actively pursuing Oriental markets. This, in addition to hostilities with Spain resulted in Congressional authorization to build eight new battleships from 1898-1900. A significant amount of attention was being given to naval power throughout the world. In fact, Roosevelt told Congress that no part of his policy was more important than naval expansion. Roosevelt’s feelings were echoed by many including Congressman Richmond Pearson Hobson, who considered a strong navy vital to protect America’s growing international power and influence. The arrival of the Dreadnought, as well as growing tension with Japan over immigration heightened the sense of urgency concerning naval buildup. The most likely nation to pose a threat to the Monroe Doctrine was Germany. As a result, the United States Navy was concentrated in the Atlantic. However, heightened tensions between Germany and Britain eased our concerns about German infringement on the Caribbean. This development freed our Atlantic Fleet to deploy to the Pacific. In addition, the presence of the U.S. warships in the Pacific would persuade the Japanese to enforce rules that were intended to ease Japanese immigration to the United States.
Roosevelt met with the Secretary of the Navy in early 1907 to order all battleships to the Pacific. Roosevelt’s announcement of this decision was deliberately misleading. Although he referred to it as a training cruise, he thought that by being indirect concerning the reasons for the deployment, he would leave each nation to come up with their own reasons. Roosevelt’s cryptic announcement of the deployment leaves people debating the real reasons even today. Tensions with Japan continued to develop and many Americans were concerned that the issues over Japanese immigration could lead to war.
One of the first issues to come to light as planning ensued was the issue of coal. The U.S. Navy did not possess a Collier fleet capable of supporting such a cruise. In addition, the U.S. Navy was dependent on British ships for logistic support. However, given the alliance between the British and Japanese, American had to question whether British support would be available in the event of a war with Japan.
On 16 December 1907 the sixteen battleships departed on cruise. Soon after their departure, the press picked up on rumors of a return via the Suez, Roosevelt denied these reports. The first stop was Venezuela. Due to lingering animosity over what was essentially a minor infraction of protocol known as the Swetteham Affair, the reception in Venezuela was rather cold. However, the next stop, Brazil, was to set the tone for the remainder of the cruise. Brazil was quite proud of their relationship with the United States and it was reflected in the reception they gave the Sailors of the Great White Fleet. Coaling issues resurfaced, leading to a decision to use foreign Colliers. The Japanese provided regular reports of the location of their ships to squelch any rumors that they planned to attack the fleet of U.S. ships. As the ships headed towards Brazil there was animosity in Argentina. Argentina felt that they were being slighted by the failure of the U.S. ships to visit their country. To offset this, a torpedo-boat squadron was sent to Argentina and given a fine reception.
As the fleet progressed they realized dramatic improvements in ship handling and station keeping, as well as a significant decline in engineering casualties. However, the issue of coal continued to cause great concern. After stops in Chile and Peru the fleet arrived in Magdalena Bay, Mexico. They arrived in Magdalena early, which caused the Mexican government some level of embarrassment. The fact that they had made it to Magdalena Bay was considered quite significant. When Roosevelt learned of their arrival he told Secretary Metcalf to announce that the fleet would return via Australia, Manila, and the Suez. Rear Admiral Evans, who was old and sick, was the fleet Commander In Chief when the fleet departed for the cruise. While the fleet was in Magdalena Bay Rear Admiral Evans’ condition became rather severe. As a result, he departed for treatment.
Departing Mexico en route to San Francisco, the fleet encountered huge crowds along the shoreline. Following a visit to San Diego, the ships were dispersed to facilitate visits to Los Angeles, Santa Barbara and Monterey. Finally, on 04 May the full fleet assembled at Santa Cruz. While the Great White Fleet was in Santa Cruz, eight armored cruisers from Seattle headed towards San Francisco Bay. In discussing San Francisco’s preparation to receive the fleet, one item of historical fact is particularly noteworthy—the largest donation to the activities came from the Japanese community of San Francisco. Awaiting a review by Secretary Metcalf were eighteen battleships, six destroyers, and six auxiliaries, all anchored outside San Francisco bay.
One million people gathered to view the grand entrance. With that addition of the ships from Seattle, a total of forty-eight ships proudly steamed into San Francisco Bay. The city threw a huge celebration to honor their arrival. Rear Admiral Evans arrived after completing his treatment, but he remained only long enough to give a departure speech prior to his retirement. Rear Admiral Thomas briefly took over, but Rear Admiral Sperry is to see the deployment to fruition.
As the fleet departed San Francisco, the itinerary for the return trip was still being debated. Japan, among other countries, extended an invitation to the fleet. Roosevelt agreed to have the fleet visit Japan, but was concerned about liberty incidents. Once the fleet departed the west coast of the United States the primary focus of the deployment shifted to diplomacy. When China sent an invitation for the fleet, Roosevelt was in a tough situation. China hoped that acceptance of the invitation would show America’s solidarity with the China/Germany union. However, Roosevelt did not want to send the wrong message to anyone. To further exacerbate the situation, suitable ports are difficult to find in China. As a result of these issues, the decision is made to send one squadron the China. Countless invitations poured in, many of which had to be turned down. Also, Britain offered the use of any of their ports throughout the world. This offer bolstered U.S./British relationships. Leaving the western coast of the United States, the fleet’s next destination was the U.S. territory of Hawaii. Notably, three of the Ensigns and one of the Midshipmen: Kimmel, Stark, Halsey and Spruance respectively were onboard during the visit to Hawaii. Unknown to any at the time, Hawaii was to play a large role in the lives of all four in the future. As Sperry prepared to take his fleet to Auckland, New Zealand he was concerned about coal. This leg of the trip was the longest, and coal had been tight on previous legs. Numerous measures were taken to conserve coal during this transit. The success of planning and precautions resulted in all sixteen battleships steaming into Auckland without incident. Not only did all sixteen make this transit, but also it was completed without any engineering casualties occurring. This feat provided early evidence of the benefits realized by extended steaming. Without shipyard support readily available the crewmembers greatly enhanced their self-sufficiency. This was to have huge implications in future naval planning and training.
The arrival of the Great White Fleet in New Zealand drew ten percent of the total population as a welcoming committee. New Zealand and Australia were terrified of Japanese advance. The removal of the British fleet from the Pacific greatly enhanced this concern. Therefore, they viewed the American fleet almost as a savior when it arrived in the Pacific. Rear Admiral Sperry took every opportunity to perpetuate this Anglo-American friendship, often giving rousing speeches to receptive crowds. Each port in Australia brought throngs of supporters as well as numerous social engagements.
In Sydney, the arrival of the fleet produced a crowd larger than that which gathered to celebrate the founding of the Commonwealth. Melbourne was regarded as the best port of call by almost all of the Sailors of the Great White Fleet. In fact, although the city hosted a dinner for 3000 people, the wide array of attractions Melbourne offered so engaged the Sailors that only seven showed up for the dinner. It was reported that each man had a woman on each arm in Melbourne. This ideal situation resulted in 221 Sailors failing to return to their ships for departure. The KANSAS remained behind to collect stragglers, eventually reclaiming 100 of the 221 originally missing. The visit to Albany brought the coal issue back to the surface. While a great deal of finger pointing occurred over the coal issue, no one person was to blame. The coal debacle was created by three factors: The proximity of the announcement of the deployment to the actual date of departure, the need to accept competitive bids for contracts, and the heavy winter. Each of these factors contributed to the coal issues.
The departure from Albany marked the end of the Australian port calls. The ships next headed to Manila, where a Cholera scare precluded any of the Sailors from going ashore for liberty. Instead, they took on more coal and left for Japan. Arrival in Yokohama brought huge crowds and elaborate celebrations. Rigid discipline was enforced to reduce the risk of liberty incidents. Given that this was Roosevelt’s concern at the outset, on-scene authorities took extensive precautions to ensure a visit free of incident. Overall the visit to Japan was a huge success and is credited by many historians as the main cause for the general easing of diplomatic tensions between Japan and the United States at that time. In fact, the resolution of the immigration issue, a successful fleet visit, and the conclusion of the Root-Takahira Agreement strongly solidified bilateral relations.
In an effort to placate China the Second Squadron was sent to Amoy for a port call. The Chinese still felt slighted because Japan had the entire fleet visit. Many Chinese were not very interested in the visit, and some thought that the United Stated planned to take Amoy as a port to use in the event of war with Japan. Residents of Amoy fled in fear until those that did were arrested. While the Second Squadron visited Amoy the rest of the fleet went to Manila for battle practice. Finally, on 01 December 1908 the entire fleet departed Manila, headed for home.
After a brief stop in Columbo for coal they crossed the Arabian Sea and made their way up the Red Sea. After a tedious crossing of the Suez Canal the ships dispersed throughout the Mediterranean for port calls. One group of ships provided earthquake relief to Italy, fostering a general feeling of good will on behalf of the United States. The fleet regrouped in Gibraltar and supply issues surfaced once again. Overcoming the obstacles of supply procurement, they were finally ready for the last leg of their deployment.
On 22 February 1909 the fleet arrived in Hampton Roads to the warm welcome of tens of thousands of cheering spectators. Roosevelt proudly reviewed the ships as they arrived.
Although the long-term benefits to international relations are debated, the impact that the cruise had on the Navy is undeniable. The single biggest impact was the absence of naval support facilities such as shipyards. This absence forced the Sailors of the Great White Fleet to develop a level of self-sufficiency never before seen in U.S. Naval service. The value of this lesson continues to drive the philosophy of self-reliance prevalent today. In addition, the prolonged periods of formation steaming and daily tactical drills honed the seamanship skills of all of the Sailors of the Great White Fleet. This pointed to the importance of long deployments and added strength to the old adage that Sailors belong on ships and ships belong at sea. Finally, the ever-surfacing issue of coal acquisition pointed clearly to the need for a U.S. Collier fleet to support ships on extended deployments to foreign waters.
Overall, the fleet that returned from the world cruise was one that had developed into a highly professional unit capable of sustained independent operations at sea. Taking the lessons learned on this cruise, the Navy was poised to develop a more proficient and professional force.
